Vedanta, one of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy, represents a culmination of The Philosophy of the Upanishads, the philosophical texts attached to the Vedas. It explores the nature of Brahman (the ultimate reality), Atman (the individual soul), and their relationship, offering various paths to liberation (moksha) from the cycle of birth and rebirth (samsara). While the Upanishads laid the foundation, Vedanta has evolved into multiple interpretations by later philosophers, leading to significant variations within the tradition.
Founders and Key Figures
Vedanta is not attributed to a single founder but rather a lineage of thinkers who built upon the teachings of the Upanishads. Key figures in the Vedantic tradition include:
- Shankaracharya (8th century CE): The proponent of Advaita Vedanta (Non-dualism), which teaches the essential oneness of Atman and Brahman.
- Ramanuja (1017–1137 CE): The founder of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta (Qualified Non-dualism), which asserts that while Brahman is supreme, individual souls and the material world are real and distinct from Brahman.
- Madhva (1238–1317 CE): The originator of Dvaita Vedanta (Dualism), which holds that Brahman (God) and the individual soul are fundamentally different and separate.
Key Texts
Vedanta draws from three principal sources, known as the Prasthanatrayi:
- The Upanishads: These philosophical treatises discuss the nature of reality, the self, and the universe. They are the foundational texts that Vedanta seeks to interpret.
- Brahma Sutras: Composed by Badarayana, these concise aphorisms systematically interpret the Upanishads and form the philosophical framework of Vedanta.
- Bhagavad Gita: A key scripture in the Hindu tradition, the Gita synthesizes various paths to liberation and offers practical guidance on living a spiritual life.
Core Ideas of Vedanta
1. Brahman: The Ultimate Reality
The Philosophy of the Upanishads in Vedanta teaches that the essence of the universe is Brahman, the infinite, formless, and unchanging reality. Brahman is described as Sat-Chit-Ananda (existence, consciousness, and bliss). Different schools of Vedanta interpret the relationship between Brahman and the material world in varying ways:
- In Advaita Vedanta, Brahman is the only reality, and the material world is an illusion (Maya).
- In Vishishtadvaita, Brahman is the supreme reality, but the material world and souls are real as parts of Brahman.
- Dvaita Vedanta argues that Brahman (God) and the individual souls are eternally distinct.
2. Atman: The Individual Self
The concept of Atman refers to the innermost essence or soul of an individual. In Vedanta, liberation is the realization that Atman is not separate from Brahman:
- Advaita Vedanta asserts that Atman and Brahman are identical, and ignorance of this unity leads to suffering.
- Vishishtadvaita maintains that Atman is distinct yet inseparable from Brahman, akin to a part-whole relationship.
- Dvaita Vedanta emphasizes that Atman is eternally distinct from Brahman, with the soul remaining a servant of God.
3. Moksha: Liberation
Moksha, or liberation, is the ultimate goal in Vedanta. It is the state of freedom from samsara (the cycle of birth and rebirth) and the realization of one’s true nature as Brahman. Each school offers a different approach to achieving moksha:
- Advaita Vedanta teaches that moksha is attained through the realization that the individual self is one with Brahman.
- Vishishtadvaita holds that liberation comes through devotion to Brahman, understood as Narayana (a personal deity), and recognizing the soul’s dependence on Brahman.
- Dvaita Vedanta posits that moksha is achieved through devotion (bhakti) to God, understood as Vishnu, and through divine grace.
4. Maya and the Illusion of Duality
In Advaita Vedanta, the concept of maya explains the illusion of duality and separation between the self and the world. Maya causes individuals to mistakenly identify with the body and mind, creating the experience of suffering. Liberation occurs when one sees through the veil of maya and recognizes the underlying unity of all things.
The Three Main Schools of Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta (Non-dualism)
- Philosopher: Shankaracharya
- Core Idea: There is no distinction between Brahman and Atman. All multiplicity and duality are illusory, and the realization of this non-duality leads to liberation.
- View of the World: The world is a temporary, illusory projection of Brahman.
- Path to Liberation: Knowledge (jnana yoga) is the primary path, where one transcends ignorance and realizes the self as Brahman.
Vishishtadvaita Vedanta (Qualified Non-dualism)
- Philosopher: Ramanuja
- Core Idea: Brahman is the ultimate reality, but souls and the material world are real and distinct parts of Brahman. The relationship is one of unity with distinction.
- View of the World: The world is real and an expression of Brahman’s body.
- Path to Liberation: Devotion (bhakti yoga) and surrender to God, recognizing that the soul is a part of Brahman.
Dvaita Vedanta (Dualism)
- Philosopher: Madhva
- Core Idea: There is a fundamental and eternal distinction between Brahman (God) and the individual soul. God is the supreme being, and the soul is a distinct, dependent entity.
- View of the World: The world and individual souls are real and separate from Brahman.
- Path to Liberation: Devotion to God (bhakti) and following divine commandments lead to liberation, but the soul remains distinct from God even in moksha.
The Diversity of Vedantic Thought
The Philosophy of the Upanishads in Vedanta presents a rich and diverse tradition that addresses fundamental questions about the nature of reality, the self, and the path to spiritual liberation. While the schools of Advaita, Vishishtadvaita, and Dvaita offer different perspectives on the relationship between Brahman and Atman, they all emphasize the ultimate goal of moksha and the importance of transcending ignorance to realize the true nature of the self.
The Philosophy of the Upanishads endows Vedanta with versatility, allowing it to endure as one of the most significant and widely practiced philosophical traditions in India, influencing not only religious practices but also shaping the broader spiritual and intellectual landscape of the region.
